Often called the “father of modern science,” Galileo Galilei was one of the most accomplished scientists of his time. To observe a mind as keen and incredible as Galileo’s was an extraordinary experience. Galileo was a physicist,
mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher. His incalculable achievements have led him to be one of the celebrated physicists, and they have allowed scientists today to work off of his discoveries. Galileo’s research was based on modern philosophies of science, and he believed that the universe should be described by mathematics. His immeasurable achievements were a major contribution to the Scientific Revolution, and he revolutionized the use of the telescope in addition to the experimental scientific method. Galileo faced many struggles with the Catholic Church; however, he was able to support his argument of the heliocentric theory with the fact that it was merely a mathematical theory which did not present a threat to the Church.¹²
Insights and Influences
Galileo’s interests were inspired by his environment of Venice, Italy. His numerous visits to the Venetian docks kindled
Portrait of Galileo for the Pandolfini Palace in Florence by Justus Sustermans circa 1639. Courtesy of www.nmm.ac.uk.
his interests in nautical devices in technology. He improved the water pump, made a more efficient design of the oars in ships’ galleys, and made vital observations of a pendulum’s motion. In addition, Galileo believed that the categorization of physics as a branch of philosophy was an insufficient organization. His research to refute the principles of Aristotelian physics was leaned especially toward the notion that heavier objects will fall faster than lighter objects. Legends tell of Galileo using the famous Leaning Tower of Pisa to display that two objects of different masses when dropped at the same height will fall at the same rate. Although he probably did not perform this experiment himself, he did undertake similar trials and understood this concept. His experiments of projectiles anteceded Newton’s law of motions by several decades. Another interest of astronomy was sparked in 1604 when the appearance of a supernova fascinated scientists and other observers. The display of the supernova generated many speculations among scientists. Although many philosophers believed that it may be a change in heavens, Galileo took it as a sign that the universe was not immutable and began researching to prove the validity in Copernicus' heliocentric theory. In the field of astronomy, Galileo was the first to make important observations using the telescope. After he heard of the invention of the telescope in 1609 in Holland, he sought to create a superior model. Using his much improved telescope, Galileo was able to make imperative observations of the sky.³⁴
Major Contributions
One of the major contributions of Galileo includes the dynamic use of the telescope. After he improved the earlier model, he was able to use it to make important observations. He noticed the dark blemishes on the sun which is now called sunspots. By monitoring the sunspots, he was able to infer that the Earth may rotate on its axis. Also, he discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter, giving support to the theory that a planet could have a moon rotating it while the planet also rotates in its orbit. One of the major observations that he made was the phases of Venus. This imperative confirmation was the first proof that supported the Copernican Theory; the theory claimed that the planets orbit the sun and therefore would be illuminated according to the position of the planet in respect to the sun. The phases of Venus that could be seen on Earth showed that the illumination shown could only occur if Venus was revolving around the sun. In addition, possibly the greatest contribution Galileo gave to the science of physics was his formulation of inertia which is the idea that an object in motion has an inertia which allows it to stay in motion unless an external force is forced upon it. Sir Isaac Newton, who was born the same year Galileo died, used Galileo’s concept as the foundation of his laws of motion. Additionally, Galileo’s confirmation that acceleration due to gravity is independent of the object’s mass was crucial to Newton’s theory of gravity. ⁵Furthermore, Galileo extensively studied the motions of a pendulum in which he used as a time measurement device. He outlined major points to its motion: pendulums nearly return to the original release point, lighter ones come to rest faster than heavier ones, the period is independent of the bob weight and amplitude, and the square of the period varies directly with the length. ⁶
Affect and Effect
Galileo was born on February 15, 1564 in Pisa, Italy. Regardless of the fact that his father, Vincenzio Galilei was a patrician, or an affiliate of the local aristocracy, the family was not wealthy. Vincenzio was a composer and music theorist, but he had to work in the wool trade in order to support his family. After the family moved to Florence, Galileo attended Florence’s Vallombrosa monastery in order to study under monks. Later on, he attended the University of Pisa as a medical student, but much to his father’s grief, he did not finish his medical degree but instead turned to mathematics in his studies as his interests blossomed in physics, mathematics, and philosophy. Recognized as an obviously talented student, he wrote about the extending results of Archimedes on centers of gravity of shapes in his early twenties. At the age of twenty-five, Galileo was appointed the chair of mathematics at the University of Pisa. In 1592, Galileo was promoted to a superior position at Padua in the Venetian Republic which he stayed at until the age of forty-six. At the age of thirty-five, Galileo met twenty-one year old Marina Gamba, and regardless of his mother’s opposition, they married and had three children.⁷ When his oldest daughter, Virginia, was thirteen years old, he put Virginia and Livia in a convent for life. Though these things were not simply done, Galileo was able to perform this act with the help of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, one of his admirers. In 1616, Virginia became a nun, taking the name, Sister Maria Celeste, and Livia followed her sister’s path and became Sister Arcangela.²
Throughout Galileo’s life, he published numerous books concerning his expertise of science. He had many close colleagues who were imperative in his research and writings. For example, Sagredo, a Venetian nobleman, was featured as a disputant in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems and Two New Sciences. The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, compared Copernicus’s theory of a heliocentric universe with Ptolemy’s theory of a geocentric universe. Galileo wanted to find proof in the fact that it was the Earth that was moving, not the sun, and he found his answer by observing ocean tides. He found that for a specific place on Earth, the speed is constantly changing due to the Earth revolving and rotating around the sun which caused tidal waves to move. After this book’s publication, Galileo was forced to go on trail after the Inquisition forbade the book from going under publication. He agreed to tone down the arguments of his book, and he was condemned to imprisonment. However, after negotiation, he was allowed to be confined to his villa until his death in 1642. During his confinement, Galileo wrote his final book, Two New Sciences, which gave an overview of what he had discovered in the world of physics over the last thirty years of research, including the strength of materials and the science of motion. Sidereus Nuncius is an account of Galileo’s observations of the sky using his telescope; the observations embrace the moon, stars, and the moons of Jupiter.⁴⁵
The Things He Left Behind
Galileo is acknowledged as the world’s first modern scientist. Many of today’s scientists base their researches off of his works. The spacecraft launched by NASA in October 18, 1989 was named in Galileo’s honor as the spacecraft’s mission was around Jupiter, a planet Galileo carefully studied with his telescope.⁸ In addition, the Copernican theory would never have developed into the 21st century if not for Galileo’s persevering effort to prove validity in it by observing the phases of Venus relative to the sun from the Earth. Through his experiments of the pendulum as well as for other object’s motions, Galileo completely revolutionized the scientific method. He ushered in the modern scientific age from the Aristotelian age of science. Galileo was the first physicist to actually experiment by hand and to relate science to experiments and mathematics which led to the “Galilean-Newtonian Paradigm.” This revolution in which Galileo brought to the world of science has affected every scientist today as they now approach their field of study in an experimental way using the Scientific Method. Galileo’s discoveries in motion influenced Sir Isaac Newton as he theorized his Law of Motions which is the basis for predicting situations in engineering as well as predicting the movements of celestial bodies.⁹
Galileo Galilei
Often called the “father of modern science,” Galileo Galilei was one of the most accomplished scientists of his time. To observe a mind as keen and incredible as Galileo’s was an extraordinary experience. Galileo was a physicist,
Table of Contents
Insights and Influences
Galileo’s interests were inspired by his environment of Venice, Italy. His numerous visits to the Venetian docks kindled
Major Contributions
One of the major contributions of Galileo includes the dynamic use of the telescope. After he improved the earlier model, he was able to use it to make important observations. He noticed the dark blemishes on the sun which is now called sunspots. By monitoring the sunspots, he was able to infer that the Earth may rotate on its axis. Also, he discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter, giving support to the theory that a planet could have a moon rotating it while the planet also rotates in its orbit. One of the major observations that he made was the phases of Venus. This imperative confirmation was the first proof that supported the Copernican Theory; the theory claimed that the planets orbit the sun and therefore would be illuminated according to the position of the planet in respect to the sun. The phases of Venus that could be seen on Earth showed that the illumination shown could only occur if Venus was revolving around the sun. In addition, possibly the greatest contribution Galileo gave to the science of physics was his formulation of inertia which is the idea that an object in motion has an inertia which allows it to stay in motion unless an external force is forced upon it. Sir Isaac Newton, who was born the same year Galileo died, used Galileo’s concept as the foundation of his laws of motion. Additionally, Galileo’s confirmation that acceleration due to gravity is independent of the object’s mass was crucial to Newton’s theory of gravity. ⁵Furthermore, Galileo extensively studied the motions of a pendulum in which he used as a time measurement device. He outlined major points to its motion: pendulums nearly return to the original release point, lighter ones come to rest faster than heavier ones, the period is independent of the bob weight and amplitude, and the square of the period varies directly with the length. ⁶
Affect and Effect
Galileo was born on February 15, 1564 in Pisa, Italy. Regardless of the fact that his father, Vincenzio Galilei was a patrician, or an affiliate of the local aristocracy, the family was not wealthy. Vincenzio was a composer and music theorist, but he had to work in the wool trade in order to support his family. After the family moved to Florence, Galileo attended Florence’s Vallombrosa monastery in order to study under monks. Later on, he attended the University of Pisa as a medical student, but much to his father’s grief, he did not finish his medical degree but instead turned to mathematics in his studies as his interests blossomed in physics, mathematics, and philosophy. Recognized as an obviously talented student, he wrote about the extending results of Archimedes on centers of gravity of shapes in his early twenties. At the age of twenty-five, Galileo was appointed the chair of mathematics at the University of Pisa. In 1592, Galileo was promoted to a superior position at Padua in the Venetian Republic which he stayed at until the age of forty-six. At the age of thirty-five, Galileo met twenty-one year old Marina Gamba, and regardless of his mother’s opposition, they married and had three children.⁷ When his oldest daughter, Virginia, was thirteen years old, he put Virginia and Livia in a convent for life. Though these things were not simply done, Galileo was able to perform this act with the help of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, one of his admirers. In 1616, Virginia became a nun, taking the name, Sister Maria Celeste, and Livia followed her sister’s path and became Sister Arcangela.²
Throughout Galileo’s life, he published numerous books concerning his expertise of science. He had many close colleagues who were imperative in his research and writings. For example, Sagredo, a Venetian nobleman, was featured as a disputant in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems and Two New Sciences. The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, compared Copernicus’s theory of a heliocentric universe with Ptolemy’s theory of a geocentric universe. Galileo wanted to find proof in the fact that it was the Earth that was moving, not the sun, and he found his answer by observing ocean tides. He found that for a specific place on Earth, the speed is constantly changing due to the Earth revolving and rotating around the sun which caused tidal waves to move. After this book’s publication, Galileo was forced to go on trail after the Inquisition forbade the book from going under publication. He agreed to tone down the arguments of his book, and he was condemned to imprisonment. However, after negotiation, he was allowed to be confined to his villa until his death in 1642. During his confinement, Galileo wrote his final book, Two New Sciences, which gave an overview of what he had discovered in the world of physics over the last thirty years of research, including the strength of materials and the science of motion. Sidereus Nuncius is an account of Galileo’s observations of the sky using his telescope; the observations embrace the moon, stars, and the moons of Jupiter.⁴ ⁵
The Things He Left Behind
Galileo is acknowledged as the world’s first modern scientist. Many of today’s scientists base their researches off of his works. The spacecraft launched by NASA in October 18, 1989 was named in Galileo’s honor as the spacecraft’s mission was around Jupiter, a planet Galileo carefully studied with his telescope.⁸ In addition, the Copernican theory would never have developed into the 21st century if not for Galileo’s persevering effort to prove validity in it by observing the phases of Venus relative to the sun from the Earth. Through his experiments of the pendulum as well as for other object’s motions, Galileo completely revolutionized the scientific method. He ushered in the modern scientific age from the Aristotelian age of science. Galileo was the first physicist to actually experiment by hand and to relate science to experiments and mathematics which led to the “Galilean-Newtonian Paradigm.” This revolution in which Galileo brought to the world of science has affected every scientist today as they now approach their field of study in an experimental way using the Scientific Method. Galileo’s discoveries in motion influenced Sir Isaac Newton as he theorized his Law of Motions which is the basis for predicting situations in engineering as well as predicting the movements of celestial bodies. ⁹
References
1. Galileo Galilei
2. The Galileo Project
3. Lucid Cafe
4. Student Research Center
5. Galileo: The Telescope and the Laws of Dynamics
6. Galileo's Pendulum Experiments
7. Life of Galileo
8. Solar System Exploration
9. Pendulum